Measurement of Phthalates in Settled Dust in University Dormitories and Its Implications for Exposure Assessment

Six phthalates: dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), di(n-butyl) phthalate (DnBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBzP), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and di(n-octyl) phthalate (DOP) in settled dust on different indoor surfaces were measured in 30 university dormitories. A Monte Carlo simulation was used to estimate college students' exposure via inhalation, non-dietary ingestion, and dermal absorption based on measured concentrations. The detection frequencies for targeted phthalates were more than 80% except for DEP (roughly 70%). DEHP was the most prevalent compound in the dust samples, followed by DnBP, DOP, and BBzP. Statistical analysis suggested that phthalate levels were higher in bedside dust than that collected from table surfaces, indicating a nonuniform distribution of dust-phase phthalates in the sleep environment. The simulation showed that the median DMP daily intake was 0.81 μg/kg/day, which was the greatest of the targeted phthalates. For the total exposures to all phthalates, the mean contribution of exposures during the daytime and sleeping time was 54% and 46%, respectively.

Face Mask: As a Source or Protector of Human Exposure to Microplastics and Phthalate Plasticizers?

Wearing masks has become the norm during the Coronavirus disease pandemic. Masks can reportedly interface with air pollutants and release microplastics and plastic additives such as phthalates. In this study, an experimental device was set up to simulate the impact of five kinds of masks (activated-carbon, N95, surgical, cotton, and fashion masks) on the risk of humans inhaling microplastics and phthalates during wearing. The residual concentrations of seven major phthalates ranged from 296 to 72,049 ng/g (median: 1242 ng/g), with the lowest and the highest concentrations detected in surgical (median: 367 ng/g) and fashion masks (median: 37,386 ng/g), respectively. During the whole inhalation simulation process, fragmented and 20-100 µm microplastics accounted for the largest, with a rapid release during the first six hours. After one day's wearing, that of 6 h, while wearing different masks, 25-135 and 65-298 microplastics were inhaled indoors and outdoors, respectively. The total estimated daily intake of phthalates with indoor and outdoor conditions by inhalation and skin exposure ranged from 1.2 to 13 and 0.43 to 14 ng/kg bw/d, respectively. Overall, surgical masks yield a protective effect, while cotton and fashion masks increase human exposure to microplastics and phthalates both indoors and outdoors compared to no mask wearing. This study observed possible risks from common facemasks and provided suggestions to consumers for selecting suitable masks to reduce exposure risks from microplastics and phthalate acid.

Does Using Corsi-Rosenthal Boxes to Mitigate COVID-19 Transmission Also Reduce Indoor Air Concentrations of PFAS and Phthalates?

The COVID-19 pandemic brought new emphasis on indoor air quality. However, few studies have investigated the impact of air filtration, a COVID-mitigation approach, on indoor air concentrations of semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs). Using a quasi-experimental design, we quantified the impact of a relatively low-cost "do-it-yourself" air filter (Corsi-Rosenthal Box; CR Box) on indoor air concentrations of 42 PFAS and 24 other SVOCs. We sampled air before (October-November 2021) and during (February-March 2022) deployment of CR Boxes in 17 rooms located in an occupied Providence, Rhode Island office building. We measured sound levels in rooms with CR Boxes operating and not operating. While CR Boxes were deployed, concentrations of seven PFAS (N-EtFOSE, N-EtFOSA, FBSA, PFBS, PFHxS, PFOS, PFNA) were 28-61% lower and concentrations of five phthalates (DMP, DEP, DiBP, BBzP, DCHP) were 29-62% lower. Concentrations of five PFAS and one phthalate increased 23-44% during the intervention period, but the 95% CI of most of these estimates included the null. Daytime sound levels increased 5.0 dB when CR Boxes were operating. These results indicate that CR Boxes reduced exposure to several lower-volatility phthalates and sulfonated PFAS previously reported to be found in office building materials and products, with potentially distracting increases in sound levels.

Occurrence of phthalates in facemasks used in India and its implications for human exposure.

Synthetic polymers with additives are used in the manufacturing of face masks (FMs); hence, FMs could be a potential source of exposure to phthalic acid esters (PAEs). India stands second in the world in terms of the FMs usage since the beginning of Covid-19 pandemic. However, little is known about the PAEs content of FMs used in India. Some PAEs, such as DEHP and DBP are suspected endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs); hence, wearing FM may increase the risk of exposure to these EDCs. In this study, we collected 91 samples of FMs from eight Indian cities and analyzed for five PAEs viz. DMP, DEP, DBP, BBP, and DEHP. The PAEs contents in FMs ranged from 101.79 to 27,948.64 ng/g. The carcinogenic risk of N 95 with filter, N-95, and cloth masks was higher than the threshold levels. The findings indicate the need to control PAEs in FMs through regulatory actions.

Determination and risk assessment of phthalates in face masks. An Italian study.

Serious human health concerns have been recently raised from daily use of face masks, due to the possible presence of hazardous compounds as the phthalic acid esters (PAEs). In this study, the content of 11 PAEs in 35 commercial masks was assessed by applying a specific and accurate method, using Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry. Surgical, FFP2 and non-surgical models, for both adults and children were collected from the Italian market. Analyses showed that four of the target analytes were detected in all tested samples with median total concentrations ranging between 23.6 mg/kg and 54.3 mg/kg. Results obtained from the experimental analysis were used in the risk assessment studies carried out for both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects. Doses of exposure (Dexp) of PAEs ranged from 6.43 × 10-5 mg/kg bw/day to 1.43 × 10-2 mg/kg bw/day. Cumulative risk assessment was performed for non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic effects. No potential risk was found for non-carcinogenic effects, yet the 20% of the mask samples showed potential carcinogenic effects for humans. A refined exposure assessment was performed showing no risk for carcinogenic effects. This paper presents a risk assessment approach for the identification of potential risks associated to the use of face masks.

Evaluating Indoor Air Phthalates and Volatile Organic Compounds in Nail Salons in the Greater New York City Area: A Pilot Study.

The Greater New York City area ranks highest in the United States in the number of nail salon technicians, primarily Asian immigrant women. Nail salon technicians are exposed to toxic phthalates and volatile organic compounds daily in nail salons. The purpose of this pilot study was to measure a mixture of phthalates and volatile organic compounds in nail salons in the Greater New York City area, and to characterize work-related determinants of indoor air quality in these nail salons. Working with four Asian nail salon organizations in the Greater New York City area, we measured indoor air phthalates and volatile organic compounds at 20 nail salons from February to May 2021 using silicone wristbands and passive samplers, respectively. Nail salon characteristics were also examined. We measured six phthalates and 31 volatile organic compounds. Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and Diethyl phthalate had the highest concentrations among the six phthalates measured. Concentrations of toluene, d-limonene, methyl methacrylate, and ethyl methacrylate were higher than that of the rest. Manicure/pedicure tables, the number of customers per day, and application of artificial nail (acrylic) services were positively associated with the levels of phthalates and volatile organic compounds. Given the large number of people employed in the nail industry and the even larger number of customers visiting such establishments, exposures to these toxic chemicals are likely to be widespread.

Profiling of phthalates, brominated, and organophosphate flame retardants in COVID-19 lockdown house dust; implication on the human health.

In this study, brominated flame retardants (BFRs), phthalates, and organophosphate flame retardants (PFRs) were analyzed in indoor household dust collected during the COVID-19 related strict lockdown (April-July 2020) period. Floor dust samples were collected from 40 households in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The levels of most of the analyzed chemicals were visibly high and for certain chemicals multifold high in analyzed samples compared to earlier studies on indoor dust from Jeddah. Bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was the primary chemical in these dust samples, with a median concentration of 769,500 ng/g of dust. Tris (2-butoxy ethyl) phosphate (TBEP) and Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE 209) contributed the highest among PFRs and BFRs with median levels of 5990 and 940 ng/g of dust, respectively. The estimated daily exposure in the worst case scenario (23,700 ng/kg bw/day) for Saudi children was above the reference dose (20,000 ng/kg bw/day) for DEHP, and the hazardous index (HI) was also >1. The long-term carcinogenic risk was above the 1 × 10-5, indicating a risk to the health of Saudi young children from getting exposed to DEHP from indoor dust. This study draws attention to the increased indoor pollution during the lockdown period when all of the daily activities by adults and children were performed indoors, which negatively impacted human health, as suggested by the calculated risk. However, the current study has limitations and warrants more monitoring studies from different parts of the world to understand the phenomenon. At the same time, this study also highlights another side of COVID-19 related to our lives.

Significant changes in follicular fluid phthalate metabolite levels reflect the lifestyle changes brought about by the strict COVID-19 lockdown in India.

OBJECTIVE: To assess if the unprecedented changes in lifestyle because of the lockdown initiated by the COVID-19 pandemic, which altered human behavior, and influenced purchase and consumption patterns, may have had an impact on the exposure to phthalates in Indian women undergoing in vitro fertilization/intracytoplasmic sperm injection (IVF/ICSI). To evaluate if the effects of the strict and lengthy lockdown in India, which promoted the new norms of stay-at-home and work-from-home, closure of beauty parlors, and restriction on public gatherings, may have contributed to a decrease in the exposure to phthalates like dibutyl phthalate and diethyl phthalate. These chemicals are found in many personal care products (PCPs) which include cosmetics and fragrances. To investigate if the extensive use of flexible single-use plastic in personal protective equipment like face masks/gloves and in plastic packaging used for online purchases, food takeaways, and home deliveries of essentials and groceries during the COVID-19 pandemic, in an attempt to provide a contact-free delivery system may have inadvertently led to an increase in exposure to phthalates like di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, di-isononyl phthalate, and di-isodecyl phthalate which are plasticizers used in manufacturing flexible plastic. DESIGN: A comparative study of the levels of six phthalate metabolites detected in follicular fluid (FF) of Indian women undergoing IVF/ICSI 1 year before and immediately after the lockdown initiated by the COVID-19 pandemic. SETTING: In vitro fertilization center in a large referral hospital in India. PATIENT(S): A total of 176 Indian women seeking treatment for infertility and undergoing oocyte retrieval were included after obtaining consent. Each woman contributed one FF sample to the study. Group A (n = 96) women (mean age, 34.0 [±3.9] years, and mean BMI, 25.4 [±4.8]) had their FF samples collected and screened between January 2019 and mid-March 2020, 1 year before the lockdown. Group B (n = 80) women (mean age, 33.9 [±4.1] years, and mean BMI, 25.0 [±4.4]) had their FF collected and screened post the lockdown between October 2020 and June 2021. Both groups were matched by age and BMI. INTERVENTION(S): The cryopreserved FF samples of 176 women were processed using enzymatic deconjugation as well as the solid-phase extraction technique, and analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to detect the total levels of six phthalate metabolites. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): To evaluate the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on the change in the phthalate metabolite levels in the FF of Indian women undergoing IVF/ICSI pre and post the lockdown. RESULT(S): The median levels of mono-n-butyl phthalate (1.64 ng/ml in group A vs. 0.93 ng/ml in group B; P<.001) and mono-ethyl phthalate (5.25 ng/ml in group A vs. 3.24 ng/ml in group B; P<.001) metabolites of dibutyl phthalate and diethyl phthalate found in PCPs including cosmetics and fragrances were significantly higher in the FF of 96 women (group A) compared with the levels seen in the FF of 80 women (group B). However, the median levels of mono-isononyl phthalate (0.11ng/ml in group A vs. 0.13 ng/ml in group B; P<.001), mono-isodecyl phthalate (0.11 ng/ml in group A vs. 0.14 ng/ml in group B; P<.001), and mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (0.13 ng/ml in group A vs. 0.14 ng/ml in group B; P=.023) metabolites of di-isononyl phthalate, di-isodecyl phthalate, and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate used as plasticizers were significantly higher in the FF of women in group B compared with women in group A. CONCLUSION(S): The significant drop in mono-n-butyl phthalate and mono-ethyl phthalate levels, accumulated in the FF of 80 Indian women in group B reflects a decrease or absence of usage patterns of PCPs, including cosmetics and fragrances, thereby suggesting that these women may have deprioritized their use during the COVID-19 pandemic giving preference to personal hygiene and safety. Whereas the unprecedented increase in the use of flexible single-use plastic that became our first line of defense against the coronavirus during the COVID-19 pandemic might be responsible for the accumulation of significantly higher levels of mono-isononyl phthalate, mono-isodecyl phthalate, and mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate in FF of the same group.

Modeling di (2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate (DEHP) and Its Metabolism in a Body’s Organs and Tissues through Different Intake Pathways into Human Body

Phthalate esters (PAEs) are ubiquitous in indoor environments as plasticizers in indoor products. Residences are often exposed to indoor PAEs in the form of gas, particles, settled dust, and surface phases. To reveal the mechanism behind the accumulation of PAEs in different tissues or organs such as the liver and the lungs when a person exposed to indoor PAEs with different phases, a whole-body physiologically based pharmacokinetic model for PAEs is employed to characterize the dynamic process of phthalates by different intake pathways, including oral digestion, dermal adsorption, and inhalation. Among three different intake pathways, dermal penetration distributed the greatest accumulation of DEHP in most of the organs, while the accumulative concentration through oral ingestion was an order of magnitude lower than the other two doses. Based on the estimated parameters, the variation of di-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) concentration in the venous blood, urine, the liver, the thymus, the pancreas, the spleen, the lungs, the brain, the heart, and the kidney for different intake scenarios was simulated. The simulated results showed a different accumulation profile of DEHP and MEHP in different organs and tissues and demonstrated that the different intake pathways will result in different accumulation distributions of DEHP and MEHP in organs and tissues and may lead to different detrimental health outcomes.

Spatiotemporal Distribution and Ecological Risk Assessment of Plastic Additives in Taihu Lake

To reveal the spatiotemporal distribution and risks of plastic additives in Taihu Lake during the COVID-19 pandemic, the occurrences of typical bisphenols, phthalate esters, and benzotriazoles in the surface water of Taihu Lake were investigated. The plastic additives in 19 sites in Taihu Lake were monitored in four seasons, and their potential ecological risks were evaluated. Diethylphthalate (DEP), dimethoxyethyl phthalate (DMEP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), bisphenol A (BPA), and 2-(2H-benzotriazol-2-yl)-4, 6-di-tert-pentylphenol (UV-328) were detected, with detection rates of 100%, 97%, 58%, 98%, and 7%, respectively. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the sharply increasing usage of plastic products did not result in a significant increase in the plastic additives pollution in Taihu Lake. Conversely, the pollution of plastic additives showed a decreasing trend due to reduced human activities. There were significant seasonal differences in the concentrations of plastic additives in Taihu Lake. The average concentrations of plastic additives in spring and summer were 104.7 and 100.3 ng•L-1, respectively, which were higher than those in autumn (30.7 ng•L-1) and winter (29.9 ng•L-1). The plastic additive pollution also showed some differences in spatial distribution. The concentrations of plastic additives near the southwest coast of Taihu Lake were higher than those in other monitoring sites. The presence of plastic additives in Taihu Lake showed low risks to algae with the proportion of 30%. The risks in autumn and winter were higher than those in spring and summer. BPA and UV-328 may have been the main risk factors, which should be of concern. © 2022, Science Press. All right reserved.

Methodology for exposure and health risk screening of phthalates potentially present in fabric face coverings

To mitigate the spread of COVID-19, face masks, including fabric face coverings, have been encouraged or mandated. To meet demand, traditional clothes-making fabrics have been redirected to face covering manufacture. It has been reported that phthalates may be present in textiles, posing a health risk consideration for the industry;however, the potential presence of and exposure to phthalates in fabric face coverings have not been evaluated. Consequently, this study (1) estimated the concentrations of phthalates in fabric face coverings, (2) estimated the potential consumer exposures, and compared them to health guidance values (HGVs), and (3) advised on voluntary phthalate testing in textiles and/or face coverings. Precautionary upper-bound phthalate mass in face coverings was estimated from phthalate concentrations in clothing articles. Exposure to phthalates was predicted to occur predominantly via inhalation and direct dermal contact;however, for both routes, the doses were below HGVs, indicating that, based on the limited materials characterized in the literature, a health risk was unlikely. Further, the limit of 0.1% (w/w) set for individual or sum of phthalates in child care articles in the U.S. and other countries was deemed protective for children and adult face coverings. We conclude that the establishment of industry-wide voluntary phthalate quality specifications and test data for commercial face coverings or textiles used to manufacture them is advisable to substantiate product safety given the limited data.

Identifying environmental factors that influence immune response to SARS-CoV-2: Systematic evidence map protocol.

BACKGROUND: Widespread environmental contamination can directly interact with human immune system functions. Environmental effects on the immune system may influence human susceptibility to respiratory infections as well as the severity of infectious diseases, such as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Furthermore, the efficacy of vaccines to respiratory diseases may be impacted by environmental exposures through immune perturbations. Given the quick pace of research about COVID-19 and associated risk factors, it is critical to identify and curate the streams of evidence quickly and effectively. OBJECTIVE: We developed this systematic evidence map protocol to identify and organize existing human and animal literature on high-priority environmental chemical classes (Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, pesticides, phthalates, quaternary ammonium compounds, and air pollutants) and their potential to influence three key outcomes: (1) susceptibility to respiratory infection, including SARS-CoV-2 (2) severity of the resultant disease progression, and (3) impact on vaccine efficacy. The result of this project will be an online, interactive database which will show what evidence is currently available between involuntary exposures to select environmental chemicals and immune health effects, data gaps that require further research, and data rich areas that may support further analysis. SEARCH AND STUDY ELIGIBILITY: We will search PubMed for epidemiological or toxicological literature on select toxicants from each of the chemical classes and each of the three outcomes listed above. STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS OF METHODS: For each study, two independent reviewers will conduct title and abstract screening as well as full text review for data extraction of study characteristics. Study quality will not be evaluated in this evidence mapping. The main findings from the systematic evidence map will be visualized using a publicly available and interactive database hosted on Tableau Public.

Widespread occurrence of phthalate and non-phthalate plasticizers in single-use facemasks collected in the United States.

Single-use or disposable facemasks have been widely used by the public for personal protection against the spread of COVID-19. The majority of disposable facemasks are made of synthetic polymers such as polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate (as polyester), and polystyrene, and could therefore be a source of human exposure to plasticizers that are incorporated into these polymers during production. Little is known, however, about the occurrence of plasticizers in facemasks. In this study, we determined the concentrations of nine phthalate diesters and six non-phthalate plasticizers in 66 facemasks purchased in the United States. Among phthalate diesters, dibutyl phthalate, di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, di-iso-butyl phthalate, and butyl benzyl phthalate were found in all facemask samples, at median concentrations of 486, 397, 254, and 92 ng/g, respectively. Among non-phthalate plasticizers, dibutyl sebacate (median: 3390 ng/g) and di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (352 ng/g) were found at notable concentrations. Inhalation exposure to select phthalate and non-phthalate plasticizers from the use of facemasks was estimated to range from 0.1 to 3.1 and 3.5 to 151 ng/kg-bw/d, respectively. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report the occurrence of phthalate and non-phthalate plasticizers in facemasks collected from the United States.

Rapid in-situ analysis of phthalates in face masks by desorption corona beam ionization tandem mass spectrometry.

Phthalates (PAEs) are known as endocrine disruptors that can have adverse effects on human hormonal balance and development. Due to PAEs being semi-volatile chemical compounds, they can sustainably emit from the surfaces of objects containing PAEs. Face masks are commonly used to safeguard human health especially during periods of high prevalence of infectious diseases. As masks come into direct contact with the human respiratory system, PAEs from masks will enter the human body directly from the respiratory system thus potentially threatening human health. In this study, the desorption corona beam ionization (DCBI)-MS/MS method for the rapid in-situ detection of PAEs in face masks was established, which could perform ultra-fast, high-throughput identification and quantitative analysis on 13 kinds of PAEs, and the limits of detection (LODs) were 0.7 µg m-2 for DAP, BBP, DBP, DPP, DHXP, DEHP, DINP and DDP, 1.4 µg m-2 for DMEP, DEP, DPhP, DBEP and DNOP. Compared with the traditional liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, this study shows that the DCBI-MS/MS method has the following advantages: 1) short analysis time, less than 1 min; 2) small solvent consumption, less than 10 µL; 3) the PAEs in face masks can be quickly in-situ screened.